Research

Overview of Literature on Professional Learning Communities

Leading researchers and practitioner organizations have identified professional learning communities as a key component for the improvement of teaching and learning, particularly at the secondary level. The outcomes of professional learning communities for high school-aged youth, as suggested by current literature, are consistent with the mission of the National Alliance on the American High School (HS Alliance): to foster high academic achievement, close the achievement gap, and promote civic and personal growth of all high school–aged youth. The HS Alliance explores professional learning communities as a promising strategy within the context of one of its seven focus areas: the preparation and development of teachers, principals, and youth workers.

A professional learning community is characterized by the collaborative work of educators to continuously seek, share, and act on their learning in order to improve their practice for the purpose of improved student outcomes (Astuto, 1993). Professional learning communities have been identified as a core component of successful schoolwide improvement for several reasons: they function as an effective strategy for building school capacity around core issues of teaching and learning (Darling-Hammond, 1995); they foster the democratic practices required to undertake and sustain fundamental, systemic change (Bryk, 1994); and, they can serve as a mechanism for transforming school culture. By modeling collegiality, intellectual inquiry, critical discourse, and continuous improvement, professional learning communities also functionÑin implicit and explicit ways– to raise the expectation and standard for students' level of engagement, development, and achievement. Studies have indicated that students tend to be engaged in learning at high intellectual levels when the adults are engaged with one another and with their students at high intellectual levels around a shared vision for student success. Through the learning community, teachers learn "how to translate enhance curricula and higher standards into teaching and learning for all of their students" (McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993). Quality professional learning communities are also characterized by many of the same attributes associated with high quality professional development: they shift the notion of professional competence from individual teacher expertise to professional community expertise; they foster a collective sense of responsibility for students' progress (Anderson, Rolheiser, & Gordon, 1998); they are inherently job-embedded and team-based (Darling-Hammond, 1996,1998b); they require a community of learners to translate into higher levels of learning for all (Jones, 1998; Sparks & Hirsh, 1997); and, they are embedded in schoolwide goals for student learning specific to the school community (Renyi, 1998; CCSSO, 1997; Sparks, 1998).

Although comparative or longitudinal studies have not yet been undertaken to measure the impact of an organizational school feature such as a professional learning community, available research asserts that the defining features of teachers' work lives do have a significant influence on teacher learning and development. Further, the literature asserts that there are specific characteristics of professional learning communities that impact teacher's ability to significantly improve student learning and development. Two characteristics have been identified as having most significant influence on student outcomes: cultural norms around learning; and, the collective responsibility of teachers for learning of all students. The literature also asserts that professional learning communities with these features are most likely to emerge in smaller schools. Because smaller schools tend to be designed with a communal, rather than bureaucratic, decision-making structure, they also foster two other characteristics of professional learning communities associated with improved outcomes for both teacher and students: sharing, collaboration and cooperation among teachers; and, authority to define their needs and to control decisions about curriculum, teaching methods, classroom environment, and other school issues not specific to instruction.

A recent strand of research suggests that professional learning communities must also balance attention to the collective, shared identity of professional learning communities (i.e., a strong focus on team and schoolwide needs and priorities), with attention to the needs and contributions of teachers as individuals. Structures that support professional learning communities must therefore provide opportunities for both shared and individual learning (Scribner, 2002). Shared learning requires more systemic supports, such as time, additional personnel, resources, and training in the skills required to facilitate collaborative work. Individual learning often can be provided in a less systemic way, through the provision of opportunities for professional development through stand-alone workshops or seminars to help teachers build skills in specific areas. Individual learning is important in that it serves to foster teachers' sense of self-efficacy and agency that are crucial for their full participation in a professional learning community. Professional learning communities that recognize the voice and contributions of individuals also serve an important role in providing a context in which there is room for critical inquiry and dissent.

The organization of this site visit protocol is a composite of the key dimensions and indicators of professional learning communities identified by Louise, Kruse, and Marks (1996), Lee and Smith (1996), Little (1993). Literature reviews by Hord (1997) on professional learning communities and by the National Association of Secondary School Principals on secondary school reform (2002) provided the context and sources for research on the multiple aspects of professional learning communities.